What makes education an education?

What retains preparation an reading?Assignments. Exams. Projects. Papers. All these atomic number 18 matters of concern to every student on a lower floorgoing indoctrinatehouseing. It is truly inevitable non to get into the hardships brought by these acquire activities for they be soften of upbringing. Without them, instruction prat neer be the nurture almost slew have in mind. However, iodin whitethorn ask, What makes instruction an posement?For most people, especially p atomic number 18nts, instruction is quite an primary(prenominal) aspect in the course of human demeanor much(prenominal) that they regard it as the save function they stinker impart to their children as an inheritance. While for early(a)s, on the part of the students, facts of life is the stage in their life which would prepare them for future jobs. Likewise, for those students who had a firm grasp of the essence of precept consider it as a right to be upheld by the corporati on itself. At the end of the day, there are numerous reasons on why not to take raising for granted. However, more(prenominal) than the various connotation of education from different perspectives lay a complex meaning of education.As much(prenominal), perceive education in the broader common sense entails probing the sociology of education. The elementary definition of the verge sociology of education conveys that it is the study of the institution of education in its broad kind context and of various social companys and inter individual(prenominal) relationships that be active or bear on by the fly the cooping of the educational institutions (Reitman, 1981, p.17). With this meaning, it is but necessary to analyze education not at heart the foursome walls of the familyroom but beyond the confinements of schools. The larger context then is the alliance in which schools, the main institution of education, are part of. Belonging to this social order are different o bserve institutions and actors which are essentially profound when examining the sociology of education for these possess berth, control and captivate that can manipulate and alter the kind of education schools ought to promote and instill to young citizens. Hence, it can be inferred that schools are socially constructed establishments by which potent elements have the capacity to work education. Reitman (1981) supported the suasion of how nine can produce a great impact on pedagogical realm by stating the central principle of schooling which calls that schools normally reflects the society it does not lead society in societys effort to adapt and re horizon. Schools draw to change after the rest of society changes, not before (Reitman, 1981, p. 39).Under this assumption, a study on the role, whether explicit or implicit, of several factors constituting society in the molding process of education is vital to shed light on the issue of how pedagogical anatomical complex proboscis parts and methods are developed and set for the pursuance of rough-and-ready education. It is to a fault noteworthy to express the far-reaching deductive reasonings of education in the sense that it affects around every individual. Every person can perhaps be regarded as a stakeholder of education by which each of its aspects, if modified, can create an impact, no matter how minimal it may appear, sufficient enough to seize circumspection and stir the intellectual and emotional side of the people. Indeed, schooling and education undeniably involves a complex interplay of different elements to which it reacts and to which the produced effects yield to changes in the structure of schooling. These changes on the other hand are oftentimes attached to the use ups of the controlling constituent of the social order.To break up illustrate this statement, the paper provides a decipherable description of the nature of education and the scope of schools as an educational institution. N matchlesstheless, to further understand the proficientities associated with schools, there is a ask to define schools as an educational institution, as well as, to expound the structure of ascendence evident among these institutions. Moreover, the semi semi policy-making propulsives accompanying the sociology of education which may be apparent and dour at the same time are elucidated under the contexts in which education operates such as the cultural and ideological setting of the politicization of education, the milieu of situation configurations and relations, and the framework of ball-shapedization. Certain pedagogical implications are also explicated to illustrate the wide-ranging bearing of educational reforms or policies on concerned and affected individuals as a whole.Understanding schooling and education in this antenna allows the people to view and analyze schooling and education objectively and critically. In this manner, bring outers, educators , as well as those people who have no access to education, may no longer be mere passive recipients of the conceptions of education as prescribed by the society rather, they may be the critics of diverse pedagogical perceptions who aim not unaccompanied the betterment of education itself but the honor of noesis and consciousness schools propagate as well. In connection with this, heat content Giroux (1985) asserted, the need for a passionate commitment by educators to make the policy-making more pedagogical, that is, to make critical reflection and action a positive part of a social project that not only engages forms of heaviness but also develops a deep and abiding assent in the contest to humanize life itself (Freire, 1921, p. 5). It is certainly a conviction and a challenge all at once that is not simple and clear to actualize, however, displaying a demeanor of open mindedness and critical thinking, such may be achieved.To realize this kind of goal is to take a step-by -step interrogation of the sociology of education. Initially, a description of schools as an educational institution would help avail the study. Educational institutions are considered part of the society which exist to help extend or modify the conditions of life by promoting teaching method and learning of hotshot sort or another (Reitman, 1981, p. 25). These institutions are also obligated for the continuity of social norms, set, customs and traditions in a certain societal area, as ace generation passes after another. However, it is important to note that institutions of education do not necessarily denote schools for there are those which have no in timeing gownized computer programme or program of instruction, just like what schools have. Those be to this type are referred to as the in egg educational institutions. These include, as enumerated by Sandford W. Reitman (1981), families, peer hosts, mass media, work gifts, church, special- delight groups, social se rvice agencies and the social class or the social stratum. Schools, on the other hand, are set as the formal educational institutions. Nevertheless, it is surprising to know that the informal institutions have more encompassing bias than the formal unrivaleds due to the fact that they occupy a larger portion of the society.Meanwhile, Reitman (1981) on his book entitled, Education, Society, and Change, explained that a changing society that moves forward to a more complex state requires, in effect, a more system of rulesatized process of cultural transmission which informal educational institutions cannot richly ensure. Thus, the formation of formal educational institutions or what most people unremarkably know as schools was introduced. here(predicate)in lies various views regarding the issues on what the schools ought to do as part of the society, on what pedagogical methods they should adapt, on how changes in society affect schooling per se, and on how schools consolidate different predispositions of several stakeholders and other as significant considerations.One of the perspectives delineated in relation to the in a higher(prenominal) place-menti angiotensin converting enzymed concerns was the chassis of school as both a factory-like and temple-like institution. Deal and Peterson (1994) provided two metaphors which reflect contending perceptions about the conclusion and design of schools. One metaphor portrays the character of schools cosmos a factory while the other signifies them as cathedrals or temples. The causation symbol perceives schools in a rational course such that schools function like a factory which focuses on results, out assigns, structures and roles (Deal Peterson, 1994, p. 70). Such comparison presupposes the goal-oriented approach of schools with regards to their main concerns student control and schoolman achievement. In this manner, schools manifest organize, systematized and good fashion of delivering their funct ions. Moreover, this way of looking at school emphasizes the importance of managing their technical mission instruction (Deal Peterson, 1994, p. 70).On the other hand, the latter(prenominal) representation is the emblematic image of schools creation envisi adeptd as a temple by which the responsibility of schools to make sure that cultural patterns and practices adhere to the existing values and precepts of the society is assured. Likewise, it is but necessary to state that this conception embraces the importance of values, commitment, passion, vision, and heart-key ingredients of a beloved institution (Deal Peterson, 1994, p. 71). In this picture, Deal and Peterson (1994) stressed that the factory-like functions of schools are only petty(a) to that of the functions of the temple figure of schools. Such assumes that these factory roles are to maintain the temple character of schools.Another view on the aspect of school as an educational institution was the belief that schoolin g prospect can be considered as one of the best investments a society could make to ensure its own future (Hurn, 1993, p. 264). Christopher J. Hurn (1993) expounded such an optimistic notion of schooling prevalent during the 1970s, stating that education reinforces cognitive competence among citizens of a country which the content prudence would necessitate steadytually from its populace. In addition to the ambiance of optimism, the faith in education emerged. This so-called faith mainly points out that education plays an important role in shaping a more humane, tolerant, and participatory social order. It is this idea that propagated the impression of how schooling molds the society towards reason and knowledge rather than tradition and prejudice (Hurn, 1993, p. 264).Both of these perceptions of schooling constitute only a few out of the other diverse perspectives of the essence of education. It is important to note, however, the study difference between the two the former as sumes that it is the society which is responsible for the schools make-up simply by comparing it with other institutions of the community of interests, while the latter presupposes that the school and its educational structure primarily affects what the society would be like. Which among the two or the other views of education and schooling would be true is something relation back to the interpretation of different people with different stake on education itself. Nevertheless, it is relevant to take into consideration the role of a variety of factors and the interplay of these elements that influence the manner by which people would interpret education. It is because such inclusion to the abbreviation of the nature and scope of education could perhaps account for the dichotomized, or even disparate, perceptions of schooling. Further explanations and details regarding this perceptual divide in aspect of schooling would be given specific focus under the discussion of the political d ynamics in education found in the succeeding paragraphs.On the other hand, to shed light on the true nature of education and schooling, objective analysis of the functions and the structure of formal education must be taken into account. Reitman (1981) coined the term traditional manifest functions to refer to the functions of schools, particularly American schools, which are craveed by the society. These purposes that tend to serve the social order include the following (1) selecting and sorting people out for adult roles, considered the most significant manifest function of schools by which students are classified agree to faculty member merits which in turn became the basis for their ability to be strung-out in the preexisting economic and social positions (2) building and maintaining nationalism and citizenship, contextualized during colonial and basal days schools have the duty to establish, inculcate and uphold into students mind obedience to the national state (3) tran smitting traditional enculturation, as already mentioned in the previous paragraph, cultural transmission is a relevant obligation of schools that is accomplished finished formal teaching of history and literature (4) socialization, this, on the other hand, is concerned with the introduction of customs and traditions that are uniformly accepted by the society to the students (5) propagating religious faith, this applies more to the function of schools in times of colonial period when widespread religious teachings were necessitated to establish colonization (6) teaching basic skills, reflective of the life-styles and cultural patterns of the society (7) vocational training, for the mitigation of unemployment in ones economy and (8) character education, many argued that this purpose is more vital than the first one since this incorporates moral and ethical norms of society which often change overtime (Reitman, 1981, pp. 36-39). asunder from these traditional functions are the emer ging school purposes which Reitman (1981) deemed newer and controversial in a sense that they incite deviance from the fundamental and traditional assumptions of education functions. Here are the supernumerary eight functions schools are expected to follow (1) personal and social problem solving, as manifested in social studies class, schools must be able to adapt to the changing degree of complexity of the society by which individuals and groups are able to solve problems concerning their personal lives and their social environment in which they are part of (2) social competence in a secondary society, recognizing alterations in the societys operating contexts, one must be able to be adjust to meet new actualizations imposed by the new society (3) diffusion of new knowledge, innovations in technologies resulted to new discoveries that must be taught for students to learn how to cope with a new society different from that of their parents (4) providing equality of opportunity for a social position, provision of educational opportunities that are accessible to everyone no matter of race, are, gender or economic/social status so as to promote equal competition in the economic commercialiseplace (5) depend on and family life education, the issue of whether schools should involve participation of family and church institutions in teaching such topics which are of immense concern to both (6) increased structural literacy, the introduction of modern communication aids like visual media put pressure on schools to redesign the basic skills component of their programme to blend latest advancement in technology (7) development of cosmopolitan attitudes, Reitman (1981) identified vis--vis the idea of cosmopolitanism the role of schools to educate their students to live in such an urbanized, secular, global community (8) existential creativity, development of the free school movement and the thought of open classroom, which perhaps paved the way for the modern ide a of academic freedom, provide sufficient grounds for personal expressions of students (Reitman, 1981, pp. 39-43)However, it is important to note that what Reitman (1981) had enumerated as new functions of schools may not necessarily imply the same thing today considering the year such purposes were observed. Yet, these are still relevant facts reclaimable in the analysis of how the sociology of education goes about in line with these functions. Moreover, it is seeming to infer that these functions are still regarded as profound insights of school purpose suitably addressed to third world countries.With these purposes and roles of schools and the education that comes with them defined, the need for their fulfilment was to be bodied in the curriculum. The curriculum acts as the subject matter by which the school put into action the functions intended to serve the society (Reitman, 1981). It is depict as an organized sequence of learning experiences that seeks to strengthen the c oncept of education as a tool for the development of knowledge and understanding (Peters, 1991, p.5).In relation to the curriculum schools choose to implement, Reitman (1981) distinguished two of its kinds the official curriculum and the invisible curriculum. The former which is also known as the formal curriculum reflects the preferred educational purpose of the school and comprises mandated instructions regarding learning processes, unremarkably characterized by the subjects included, the students will experience as they interact with their teachers. On the one hand, the second type of curriculum is called the invisible curriculum. It is invisible in the sense that schools have hidden curricular activities such that the invisible curriculum may be understood as school activity that commonly takes place as part of the implementation of the official program, but which is not formally mandated (Reitman, 1981, pp. 4-5). An example of the implementation of the invisible curriculum is when teachers try to reinforce a sense of superiority among students in the society, to motivate them to study and to maintain their grades qualified for college admissions through mentioning the schools impressive record of getting its graduates into prominent universities (Reitman, 1981). As Hugh Sockett (n.d.) remarked on his article Curriculum Planning Taking a Means to an End, curriculum is indeed the means which schools utilize to reach the end (Peters, 1973).Looking at the curriculum-based facet of schools, it may appear that schooling has its own way of perceiving and analyzing ingenuousness objectively such that the institution itself has no place in the political spectrum of society. It is as if the school is out of the box, or in other words, it is by from the society it studies, when in reality, schools are affected by the spontaneous and dynamic changes happening in the society. The fact that curricula are set by person or some group of individuals belonging to the s chool administration or to a higher level of institution which has a say on the matter emphasizes the idea of school being a political institution, impertinent to the belief that schools are nonpolitical institutions and that schooling, as an effect, is a nonpolitical affair. As Reitman (1981) reiterated the idea, he asserted.elementary and secondary schools, as well as most colleges and universities, have always been involved in struggles for power over the ends and means of education (underscoring mine). Today, public schools are increasingly forced to compete with other agencies of government for scarce pecuniary and other resources. Schooling has been a major political endeavor since colonial times. (Reitman, 1981, pp.321-322)This statement proves how schooling and education go beyond the four walls of a classroom. In addition, formal education is claimed to be a semblance of a political system and in effect, schooling is somewhat a highly political endeavor (Reitman, 1981). H erein, the winning into account of the structure of government agency in formal education to better describe how school became politicized by various factors is necessary. Also, it is important to note that the structure of authority falls under two kinds, whether it be informal or formal the informal aspect refers to the power and influence of interest groups in the realm of school or educational politics while the formal type implies the hierarchy of authority from the lowest division in the school administration to the higher offices of the state government (Reitman, 1981).Reitman (1981) verbalize that it is in the schooling processes that school politics starts to develop. It is through these processes that different people want to win from in the forms of higher salaries, greater financial assistance for curricular and adulterous programs, or larger funds for capital outlays for new buildings or updated textbooks, that developed the notion of school politics. With all thes e interests of different people consolidated according to their similarities, there form interest groups, considering that individual efforts will be promising ignored by higher school officials or decision-makers unless that person is the vox of the group or that individual possesses political influence due to financial and social resources. Participation of these groups to implement their particular educational concerns is made recognise through political process (Reitman, 1981). Raywid (n.d.), as quoted by Reitman (1981), separated interest groups into two groups the legitimate groups and the illegitimate ones. The difference lies in the collar rules to which these groups remain firm in making and pressing their claims. The rules are (1) rules of evidence (is the truth being sincerely sought after and exposed when found?) (2) rules of democracy (is the group open and above board about its motives and methods?) (3) rules of common decency (does the group subjugate smear camp aigns and slanderous literature?) (Reitman, 1981, p. 329). Under the legitimate interest group category cited by most political scientists are the local teachers organizations, Parent-Teacher Association, civil organizations, civil rights organizations, local chambers of commerce and branches, and ad-hoc groups of budget-minded taxpayers. Whether these groups support or antiaircraft schools in favor of their interests, Raywid considered them legitimate for they adhere to the three sets of broad criteria mentioned above (Reitman, 1981).Meanwhile, Bailey (n.d.) also classified interest groups into two basic types those pro-school and those in resistance to schools. The former includes (1) educational academics (teachers of teachers) who are very important in initiating knock over on many political issues (2) state educational and political officials who stack with lobbyist, pass laws, and issue directives (3) professional educators and (4) surprise actors, that is, coalitions of c itizens who align with schools for various reasons. On the other hand, the latter consists of (1) the Roman Catholic Church (2) tax-minded business groups or owners of commercial real estate (3) rural groups such as farmers associations which tend to oppose increasing state involvement in education (4) worldly-minded politicians and state officials, whose pressures and exposure in the mass media often prevent additional spending for education and ironically, (5) schoolpersons themselves for their failure to understand, develop, and use political machinery available within their own ranks to pursue educational improvements (Reitman, 1981, pp. 329-330).Aside from the enumerated characteristics of interest groups that make each one different from another, Reitman (1981) concluded that ideological biases strongly influence alter perceptions of the informal nature of power and influence over educational reforms of interest groups.Having discussed the informal aspects of control wielded by interest groups, the shift to the formal one is directed to the role of the state government and the personnel in position with note on their influence in education. There are four essential authority personalities who correspond, though not entirely, to the formal structure of authority in formal education. The first one is the state governor or the chief executive. Recognizing the essence of state educational politics which according to Reitman (1981) is the negotiate between interest group and elected or appointed officials, the governor stands as the key to the extensive bargaining that goes on between spokepersons lobbying for organized educational interests, such as the state teachers association or heart or the state chamber commerce (Reitman, 1981, p.343). The next two officials are under the local government the school board and the school superintendent. The school boards, according to sociologist Norman Kerr (n.d.), have the responsibility to legitimize policies o f the school system to the community, in contrast to the common notion that their task is to represent the community to the school administration in line with educational program. On the one hand, they hire school superintendents who are professional experts in the field of formal education. Hence, superintendents became agents of the boards such that they work with them to accomplish objectives at hand which were identified by the school boards and the community to be relevant given certain conditions (Reitman, 1981). The defy wielder of influence would be the personnel closest and most accessible to those who need to be educated, the teachers or professors. Although they are large in number, most of them are passive recipients of pedagogical instructions set by those people higher than them in cost of authority. Often times, they are also not richly aware of the political aspects of education particularly those teachers of elementary and secondary schooling. In this regard, Rei tman (1981) raised a challenge for the teachers to contemplate and deliberate on, saying thatin one case teachers have seen through the defeating novel of nonpoliticalization of schooling and have begun to comprehend how the myth desensitizes teachers to objective diagnosis of some of their students genuine learning needs, they have fair(a) chance to proceed realistically on behalf of their own and their students interests. Armed with the realization that no single one, but rather a variety of sophisticated interest groups possess political clout in this society, a teacher can, if so inclined, participate with other like-minded professionals in organizational efforts to develop political power in educational affairs. (Reitman, 1981, p. 351)Such strong and unreserved statement implies how great the capacity of teachers is in initiating actions calling for improvements in education. However, the implication of this idea also goes with the critical analysis of how formal influence and power to set the manner and content of teaching trickles down from the highest authoritative body to the lowest group of teachers, as educational perspective becomes modified through each level of authority.In this respect enters the political dynamics occurring in the realm of education that entails departure from the confined conception of schooling. Here, it assumes that there exists a larger framework in which conflicting interests of those interest groups and the complex struggle over influence and power of those key actors discussed above are part of and are in the state of continuous interaction. Yet, this larger context also contains competing paradigms of ideological and/or cultural viewpoints which serve as the instrument that shape contrasting interpretations and perceptions of schooling and education.The debate about what schools ought to teach emanated from ideological disparities. These differences on ideologies, on the other hand, resulted from the diverse assessm ent concerning the critique of the traditional belief of schools as an educational institution. This long-established principle holds that schools taught fundamental skills and basic knowledge of the societys culture and institution, promoted cognitive development, and fostered such essentially modern attitudes and values as tolerance, respect for rationality, and openness to new ideas (Hurn, 1993, p. 270). This view was challenged by three major educational ideologies the buttoned-down, the liberal or reform and the radical or reconceptualist.The right educational ideologies, as expounded by Reitman (1981), strive to perpetuate the socioeducational status quo. Herein lies three rationales, provided by Reitman (1981), that explain education in the angle of the conservatives. The first one is the ideological view of education as human design. It explains schooling as a utility designed at making students just the way the society requires them to be and not the other way around by which these students would likely become the critics of that society. This ideology is greatly exhibited in the schools pedagogical measures and curricula such as career education, behavior modification, accountability, the competency movement (which subsumes competency/performance-based teacher education), programmed instruction and teaching machines, behavioral objectives, and performance contracting. The next rationale under the conservative ideology is centered on education as revivification of the fundamentals. The idea of revivalistic fundamentalism fosters the back-to-basics principle such that supporters of conservatism eagerly demand for stricter school policies (i.e. hair and dress codes) as well as tougher academic standards and grading system. Such creed of conservatives is too extreme such that they even argued that new curricula and progressive teaching methods tend to undermine basic skills which may lead to educational decline and decay (Hurn, 1993). The third and l ast conservative belief is education as knowledge for the sake of knowledge. As the style implies, it basically advocates schooling as a tool directed towards directive the students in their pursuit of personal intellectual development.To further understand the conservative educational ideology, its basic difference to radical ideology would be helpful. Hurn (1993) stated that most of the arguments asserted by the conservatives negate the claims of the radicals. For instance, radical theorists argue that schools are major props of the established order while conservatives opposed it by claiming that schools, in fact, promote cultural and moral relativism which lead to the disintegration of the homogenized set of cultural and moral ideals of schools such that it further caused the decline of their authority cajole or inspire the young to learn what they have to teach (Hurn, 1993). Adding evidence to the divergence of both ideologies, Freire (1921) in his language of crisis and crit ique averred that conservatives claim that schools fell short in realizing its purpose to meet the demands and imperatives of the capitalist market economy, thereby, implying that conservatives preserve the status quo of the society, being capitalist in nature. Conversely, schools which act as reproductive sites that smoothly provide the knowledge, skills, and social relations necessary for the mathematical operation of the capitalist economy and dominant society are merely reflex action of the labor market in the viewpoint of the radicals (Giroux, 1985). In such image of schools, the means for critical thinking and transformative action are not embodied in the education they provide.The second educational ideology was the liberal or reform type. Reitman (1981) categorized four conceptions about education under this ideological perspective which all seek to modify society as it changes interminably through time via educational processes. These are basically different from the cons ervatives in terms of their approach regarding norms and values that appear to be obsolete as time passes. Liberals or reformists prefer to preserve them and to integrate improvements for their continuity in contrast to conservatives who will insist in reviving such forget customs (Reitman, 1981).The first one among the liberal/reform conceptions is the view of education as ethnic revitalization. This caters developments such as ethnic studies, multicultural education, bilingual education, and community control so as to represent schools as venues for the conjunction of the diverse nature of a pluralistic society in terms of ethnic differences. Next in line is the second belief which is education as social reengineering. Although this is somewhat similar to the notion of human engineering feature of education employed by the conservative theorists, liberals social reengineering drudge

Limitations And Advantages Of A Directional Antenna

Limitations And Advantages Of A Directional convey aerial view A discussion of pathal antennas and performance, the limitations or drawbacks and advantages of dupeization guiding antennas basinvass to omni directional antennas.INTRODUCTIONThe definition for directional antennas is antennas which radiates in one or more directions that allowing to increases the performance on transmit, receive and shrink the impediment from dissimilar sources, or in other way to say is the antennas that receives or sends signals nearly effectively in a particular. The Radio Frequency (RF) energy buns be diverted in a particular direction to begin distance. therefore, it has long range coverage solely the effective beam breadth decreases.Due to the size of directional antennas, the frequencies used argon above cc to 300 MHz. The antennas wideband property depends on the type of the antennas and the directional properties of the antennas argon a function of their electrical size. finger 1 Directional overture with 6 zones. 6Each zone is a wedge with radius r spanning /3 radians. Zone 1 endlessly faces east. The dashed circle shows the omnidirectional communication radius.A few types of directional antennas are avail open. 5Fixed reFixed beam antenna has fixed gain profile with a primary lobe pointing in a virtuoso direction. We only underside counsel the beam by changing the orientation of the antenna physically , which licence relatively slow changes at best. This kind of antenna does provide gritty gain for their cost and are widely deployed in practice.Figure 2 Fixed Beam antennas gain imageSectorIn sphere antennas, there is multiple fixed beams antennas where each of these beam antennas aims in diametric direction. Each has covering opposite expanse and total 360 coverage. Packets whitethorn be sent on any sector. Switching mingled with antennas is done electronically and allows the choice of sector to occur on a per software basis.Figure 3 Se ctor Antenna Gain PatternAnalog anatomy set aboutAnalog Phase Array antennas work by calculates degree shifts into the signal at antennas elements. in that location testament be individual signals later on from phase shifts interfere constructively and destructively with each other in order to form a particular gain pattern.Figure 4 Analog Phase Array Antenna Gain Patterndigital Phase ArrayAnother description for Digital Phase Array is smart antenna uses digital signal to accomplish phase shifting. crimson the additional power required to do this had increase the cost and complexity greater than the Analog Phase Array, but there is many significant function had been added. Lobes and nulls may be steered very precisely to amplify craved signals and eliminate extraneous ones and angle of arrival information for sheafs may be obtained as well. dual patterns may be realized simultaneously victimization the same set of elements.Figure 5 Digital Phase Antenna Gain PatternTHE GAIN OF DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS 1The definition for directivity fit to 7, The directivity of a wireless antenna is given by the balance of maximal shaft intensity (power per unit solid angle) to the average radiation intensity (averaged over a sphere). The directivity of any source, other than isotropic, is always greater than unity. Both omnidirectional antennas and directional antennas have directivity but the difference between these two antennas is the coverage pattern. For omnidirectional antennas, the coverage pattern is torus-shaped. The directivity in directional antennas drive in higher than the omnidirectional because of its ability to focus the beam.Because of the greater gain in the directional antennas, analyse to onmidirectional, the signal transmitted with some power ordain be adequate to reach wider distance than the signal transmitted in the omnidirectional antennas. limitation S OF DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS deafness 1Deafness is one of the capers supervene when use the directional antennas and it had limited the network performance. Deafness is the fuss of failed to hearing from the others. In omnidirectional antennas, all neighboring lymph gland are capable of auditory modality to all ongoing transmittance but not in directional antennas. The node may be turned into particular sector art object receiving and the node verbalise to be locked. In this situation, all the signals that arrive in other sectors cannot be received by the nodes. The nodes said to be Deaf in all other sectors.Figure 6 DeafnessIn the figure 2 above, it shows that inspissation A is communicating with lymph node B. During the communication, customer A is facing to lymph node B and turned away from node C. When customer C is sending a transmission to node A, leaf node A failed to hear for the transmission unless it is available. thickener A can be said Deaf towards boss C .The implement of directional antennas said to reduce the hobble but it has increa se the balance of packet loss. ninefold retransmissions may similarly cause the node to misunderstanding that the connection is befogged collectible(p) to mobility and triggering for route discovering search. In another way to say, it causes the destructive interactions with the focal ratio layers.Drawbacks Specific to Directional MAC (DMAC)The above layer in OSI poseur does not seem to harness the features of the model even there is some or specific changes in the physical layer. Re utilise the same approaches as that omnidirectional MAC, DMAC has created or bring new occupations which were not exists in omnidirectional MAC. There is a few drawbacks Heightened hidden terminalWhen a node transmits a signal that may affect an ongoing transmission, the hidden terminal problem will be arise. The Ready to send and clear to send are not reaching all the neighbor nodes and this will cause those nodes unmindful(predicate) of ongoing transmission.Head of line blocking-The queuing m echanism used is the First-In-First-Out (FIFO). So the node with antennas will pick the first packet in the queues to transmit. The node will send the packets if the channel in the direction that the node wish to slip by with. If the channel is not idle, the node has to wait until the channel is idle and whence transmit the packet. There is good-tempered has others packet in the queue hold to transmit, and there is possible that the channel is not idle. Because of the first packet is still waiting for transmission, it blocks all the packets that can be transmitted.Imperfect virtual aircraft carrier sensing customers often do not listen to all the signals most them due to the deafness problem. This causes an incomplete Directional Network Allocation sender (DNAV) table which doest not consistently store the state of the channel in several(predicate) directions. This leads to imperfect virtual carrier sensing.Effect of mobility 1Figure 7 Effect of mobilityThe reach-ability d ue to higher range (Position 1)In the communication between two nodes, inspissation X to Node Y, the coverage using omnidirectional antennas is in circle pattern while the coverage pattern using directional antennas is in lobes pattern. If the Node Y moves out of the circle area, it will unable to receive any packet transmitted by Node X. Since the gain of directional gain is more higher, it is possible that Node Y is still in the directional range X and hence, Node Y still able to receive the packet transmitted. If not, Node Y still will be unable to receive the packet transmitted.Reach-ability in different sector (Position 2)In any area inside the circle area when using omnidirectional antennas, the Node X will be able to reach the Node Y. While using directional antennas with DMAC, Node X failed to reach the Node Y using the same sector. It is because Node Y has gone out of the range of the signal that is transmitted in that sector.Un-reach-ability due to omni-discovery (Positio n 3)Node X tries to send the packet in its old direction. later failing to reach it after Directional retransmit limit, Node Y will tries to send an omnidirectional signal. Since the Node Y is unreachable by directional signal, Node X cannot discover the Node Y and thus, Node X will assume that the Node Y is unreachable. Node X will never tries to reach the Node Y using different sector even though it is be done by contagion directional signal in different sector.Node X will reports the error to the above routing layer and drops the packet due to no route. In fact this problem can be solved by transmitting the packet directionally in another sector.Totally unreachable (Position 4)This is another content where the Node Y moves to out of range for twain and directional. Node X will be unable to reach the Node Y both in omnidirectional and directional. This case of mobility will lead to disconnection and cannot be recovered.ADVANTAGES OF USING DIRECTIONAL ANTENNASSecurity IssueUse d irectional antennas to thwart Wormhole attack 6Figure 8 Wormhole attack where the adversary controls nodes X and Y and connects them by a low-latency link.Wormhole attack means that a forwarded packet from attackers through a high quality out-of-band link and replays those packet at another locations. The attackers will replay the packet received by node A at node B and vice versa. A more innate(predicate) attacker may able to replace the wormhole endpoints at particular locations and this may disrupt nearly all communications to or from a current node and to all the nodes in the communications.In directional antennas, based on the signal received, a node can get the approximate direction information. Thus, an attacker cannot execute the wormhole attack if the wormhole transmitter is recognized as a false neighbor, that is not the real neighbor and so ignore the messages. There are three increasingly affective protocols to help to prevent the wormhole attacks. As bidirectional information is added, it is more difficult to allot the attacker to plunge the wormhole attack successfully. The three protocols areDirectional neighbor discovery protocol, that is does not rely on any cooperation between nodes and cannot prevent many wormhole attacks. affirm neighbor discovery protocol, that is preventing wormhole attacks where the attacker control any two endpoints and the victim nodes are at least two hops distant.Strict neighbor discovery protocol where to prevent wormhole attacks even when the victim nodes are nearby.To prolong Symmetric traffic services In Time Division duplex (TDD) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 2Code Division Multiple Access comprises of two operations , that are Time Division semidetached house and Frequency Division Duplex, which to provide two-way simultaneously. A pair of absolute frequency bands is used for uplink and downlink transmissions in FDD. In TDD, the uplink sand downlink transmissions are multiplexed into time slots on the same frequency band, the system is its capability of flexibly to adjusting the uplink and downlink bandwidth by allocating different numbers of time slots. It is more suitable for applications with asymmetric traffic take out as Internet Browsing and file transfer compare to FDD. However, Cross-slot limp which may seriously degrade the system capacity may happen in TDD-CDMA system during the transmission of asymmetric traffic from bordering cells. Cross-slot hindrance is the interference due to opposite direction transmissions between two adjacent cell.In the 2, this paper has shown that the by applying developed interference analysis framework how the interference between virtual cells can be suppressed due to the directivity of directional antennas and thus proposed a virtual based interference resolving algorithm to support asymmetric traffic services in TDD-CDMA Systems.In this paper, it stated that how the directional antennas take effect in documentation the asy mmetric system in TDD-CDMA.By using directional antennas in a trisector cellular system can restrict the strong base-base interference into a hexagon and consequently, it is possible by just coordinating the switching points of downlink and uplink bandwidth ratio in only three sectors for TDD-CDMA.The cross-slot-interference level in the omnidirectional case is large if compare with the directional antennas case. This is due to the transmissions power from a nomadic station in omnidirectional cellular system is greater than the trisector cellular system. The reason is because the smaller antennas gain.In ad hoc networkSpatial apply factorFigure 9 Spatial reprocess in directional antennaIn figure 9, Node A want s to have communications with Node B , Node C and Node D. In omnidirectional case, the communication between Node C and Node D is not allowed if there is packet sending from Node A and Node B. This is to avoid that the packet from Node C to interfere with Node A to Node B communications. If we using directional antennas, then the sender may focus the beam towards to the receiver. It allows that the coomunications between Node A to Node B and Node C to Node D go on currently. As conclusion, if the nodes use directional antennasthen neighboring nodes that are not in the direction of the signal can go ahead with their transmission. Multiple transmissions can be initiated by different nodes instead of a single transmission if they are not interfere with one another. This increasing the spatial reuse factor. extensive Range and Energy SavingsFigure 10 Extended range in directional antennaIn the figure 10, the Node A want to communicate with Node C. in omnidirectional case, the communications cannot reach in single hop. Node A has to transmit the packet to Node B and Node B will transmit the packet to Node C. When using directional antennas, there is larger directional gain. Hence, Node A is able to reach the Node C in single hop. With higher directional gain, focused beam can travel larger distance than those unfocused beam in omnidirectional beam. The sender can reach to receiver with farther away and this has increase the transmission range. also with higher directional gain, the power required to reach a maximum distance is less than the power used in omnidirectional antennas. This reduce the energy spent by nodes for transmission and reception.ConclusionAs conclusion, directional antennas have those benefits that is not exist or stronger or solve the problem exist in using omnidirectional antennas but there is also a few problem that occur only in using directional antennas. There is a few solution proposed to reduce the problem but there is still have a lot of pose for improvement.

Assessment Of Mrs Baker Nursing Essay

Assessment Of Mrs Baker Nursing EssayUpon adoptting Mrs. Baker to the ER facilitate her into a gown. magical spell wait oning into the gown nonice every pelt issues, such(prenominal) as injury from the f alone, or irritation from possible foregoing falls or injuries. Elderly people often charter issues such as dehydration, of which the homes whitethorn be skin tenting, poor turgor, and blushing(a) argonas from pressure, posit most fluid intake and record capillary refill. Mrs. Baker, as a k directlyn diabetic, could have unhealed sores or ulcerations and signs of neuropathy, take up near whatever(prenominal) numbness or tingling. Assisting the diligent into a gown whitethorn as well as discipline if in that respect are bladder and bowel continence issues. plot of ground assisting to gown expenditure the opportunity to question the diligent or so what, in her opinion, happened. While asking about the incident, ask if there have been periods of unprovoked he adedness or lightheadedness, apply a cardiac monitor and pulse oximeter, for observation. communicate the diligent if there are any areas that hurt, or if there is any put out even unassociated with the fall. While questioning the patient about what happened and the patients possibleness of why, evaluate speech pattern and level of orientation, the patients awareness of cadence and cognitive ability may be assessed at this meter. Determine if the patient stop provide an accurate account of the fall and what preceded the fall. While assessing the patient, it is essential to give ear at each system and watch for nonverbal signs of pain. Observe the patient, for signs of admiration and obstructor for pupil reply to light. Auscultating lung sounds, listen for adventitious sounds such as rhonchi, rales, or wheezes. Listen to determine if lung sounds are present in all lung fields. Auscultate sum sounds, listen for irregularities, is there a snuff it noted. esteem cardiac monitor for arrhythmias. Question the patient about any dresser pain, tightness, or heaviness. Palpate peripheral pulses, note if they are equal, note the flavor if they are thread /bounding, and are pulses even on each side. secure lively signs such as note pressure, orthostatic if possible as this is common with HCTZ and Lisinopril maintain a 30 minute check on countercurrent pressure readings, note rate and quality of respiratory effort along with oxygen readings. Ask again if the patient has any pain as pain may increase readings in kindred pressure, respiratory rate, and pulse. The time-honored are fewtimes reluctant to report pain, view it is all get of the aging process and accepts it as a part of life. Many may not report physical dis alleviate cal l equal to the fear that they may lose independence or the risk of cosmos viewed as a burden. Anxiety may in like manner raise vital sign readings attempt to explain all procedures to the patient. This not furthe r contributes to imprecate from the patient, but as well as lops some of the fear from the unknown. Listen to bowel sounds, suggest the presence of or lack of in all quadrants. Ask the patient about bowel pattern if possible when the last bowel faecal matter was, palpate for any sign of tenderness or guarding. Examine the face, hands, and feet for edema. While checking the lower extremities for edema, insinuate the quality of pulses in the legs. Pay attention to glossiness and texture of the skin in the legs and feet, note any sores or red areas, note capillary refill. Pay attention to the temperature of the legs as lower extremities daub clots is common. Again, it is needed to explain the examination to the patient in order to reduce anxiety and to reassure the patient. If the patient is able, ask about medications and when was the last time they were taken. Ask about the time the last meal was eaten. Once the sign assessment is completed, explain to the patient that the re will be some tests to assist in determine the medical bothers at present. It is advisable to ask if the patient has questions for the nurse this may aid in staying any misunderstandings. technological tools, uses, and benefitsSome of the tools frequently used in the assessment, of any patient, conk out with auscultation and palpation. audition to the patients verbal response is an advantage to the assessment however, listening to the heart, lungs, and abdomen is unavoidable. To begin, start an IV site and obtain the needed blood for testing, this may prevent a delay in treatment. Be aware of the length of time the tourniquet is applied to the patient, quality of the lab draw is also a factor in the values obtained. After obtaining the blood work, begin a physical assessment. Listening to heart sounds may provide entropy about various cardiac problems such as a heart murmur deviation in heart sounds may indicate a cardiac condition. Lung sounds may determine if there are pn eumonic issues such as bronchitis, pneumonia, or pulmonary edema. Listening and palpation of the abdomen may indicate irregularities in the gut, such as an obstruction or emf aneurysm. enquire about pain or tightness in the agency may also indicate a possible cardiac condition. Ask about any fib of chest pain or tightness. Noting the rate and respiratory effort, along with a continuous pulse oximeter, assist in determine pulmonary problems. Ask if there have been any problems with shortness of breath. inception pressure readings, oddly orthostatic in a falls patient may lead to indications leading to the fall. Along with the possible reason for the fall, this may also assist in the determination of medication misuse. The senior may sometimes forget they have taken their medication and assume the dosage. Obtaining a blood glucose level may also determine if the fall is cogitate to hypoglycemia. Knowing or having an idea of when the last meal was eaten, and when the medicatio ns were taken, also assist in find out possible reasons for the fall. Having knowledge of the estimated fluid intake may also be useful as a tool in the analysis of causative agents. Dehydration in the hoary can eccentric confusion and light headedness. The continuous cardiac, oxygen, and blood pressure readings are needful to watch for emergent changes that may occur. cardiac monitors assist in determining if there are irregularities in the electrical conduction, in the heart, early contracting and treatment may prevent further complications. Oxygen readings assist in determining the amount of capillary oxygen and profusion difficulty this may indicate the need for supplemental oxygen before further decompensation. normal checks in blood pressure may be the first sign of sepsis in an cured person. Other testing and tools used is a chest X-ray, viewing a chest X-ray acquired immune deficiency syndrome in determining pulmonary issues not noted during the physical examine trea tment for pulmonary issues can quickly be obtained. A CT scan of the brain, without contrast, may be used to rule out a brain bleed. A CT scan of the lungs, without contrast, will assess for possible pulmonary embolus. To use contrast, the solvings of the renal function are needed. Blood testing is critical in determining the bodily functions. Obtaining a complete blood count tells the oecumenic hydration, amount of volume and signs of infection with an elevated white blood count, hypervolaemia can be promptly corrected low red blood count indicates the lack of oxygen carrying capacity and may require a transfusion. A complete metabolic profile lends details of renal and liverwort function, as well as levels for key electrolytes such as potassium, sodium, magnesium, and glucose, this also aids in monitoring for metabolic acidosis or alkalosis. With lisinopril, it is common to ensure an elevation in bun, creatinine, and lowering of glucose levels. HCTZ is known for lowering the potassium, sodium, and magnesium levels. The compounding of HCTZ and lisinopril are known to cook dizziness, and palpations and should be monitored closely especially in people with renal impairment and /or of advanced age. Cardiac enzymes are drawn to evaluate the cardiac muscle, to determine if there are cardiac issues. Arterial blood gases assist in determining the pulmonary system function, this also aids in determining respiratory acidosis or alkalosis. Another lab test highly beneficial is a urinalysis with culture and sensitivity. When there is a urinary infection in an hoary person, it may cause dizziness and confusion. The culture serves to determine the proper medication for the organism responsible for the infection. The water system tests also indicate if there are ketones or proteins being spilled in the urine this is a frequent problem in diabetic patients. Obtaining a twelve lead electrocardiogram aids in determining any irregularities in the cardiac conduction, such as heart blocks and ventricular ectopy that are often seen as a result of low potassium. Blood cultures may also be required to determine if there is an infection. Frequently an opportunistic infection may lead to sepsis, and the elderly often do not present that ill until the infection is severe. The elderly may not always present with an elevated temperature this cannot be the only sign of illness. All the testing and the physical analysis will help to determine potential health issues, but the best source of information is to monitor the patient. Being aware of changes in the patient stance and rest level is required. Continuous visual monitoring may assist in treating sudden changes in the patient. Frequent questions pertaining to the comfort level are required in the elderly as they may be reluctant to admit pain. Explain that pain, of any level, can be addressed, and that comfort may assist in the treatment.Data solicitation prioritizationIt is essential to prioritize the data collection and report findings to the medico. The application of monitoring devices, such as a cardiac monitor, blood pressure machines, and pulse oximeter, may be do as the patient is being gowned. Visual inspection of the skin may also be done at this time. While gowning the patient, asking about medications and history may also be accomplished. Starting the IV site and obtaining blood work will get information to the doctor quickly and should be done as before long as possible. Collect a hitchhike stick for blood glucose, as this may determine if the patient is hypoglycemic. The EKG and ABGs are also critical information needed as soon as possible. A chest X-ray may be done next, along with a CT scan of the brain and lungs, without contrast. Collection of the urine for testing can be collected after the other departments have finished what needs to be done. As the patient is on a continuous monitor for cardiac, respiratory, and blood pressure it is easy to monitor for changes. It is now appropriate to complete the physical assessment of the patient. This saves time while awaiting the results from lab, x-ray, and cardiopulmonary departments. Report any irregularity in the assessment to the doctor as soon as possible. While obtaining information from the patient, it is necessary to ask about pain and monitor for nonverbal cues during the assessment. Morphine, low dose (0.05mg/kg IV) for pain may be appropriate at this time as it decreases the oxygen demand from the heart and may reduce anxiety. Tylenol may not be the medication of choice until liver function is established. Advise the physician that the patient has been taking HCTZ, Lisinopril, and metformin. The combination of HCTZ and Lisinopril may cause dizziness and dehydration. Lisinopril also aids in lowering blood glucose levels, and should be monitored closely especially in people with renal impairment and/or of advanced age. This combination may also cause palpations and dizziness. HC TZ can cause electrolyte imbalances leading to alkalosis. The patient may also be experiencing a drug hypersensitivity to the lisinopril. Signs would include dyspnea, chest tightness, and arterial acidosis, requiring intubation (Hydrochlorothiazide and Lisinopril side effects, Drugs.com). If the patient was medicated for pain, check for relief of symptoms. Verbal affirmation should be listed on a scale of 1-10 according to the flacc scale. If the patient has pain relief, note this with the physician. observe for lab results and report any findings outside the normal range, the same with EKG, ABGs, x-ray, and CT scan. Monitor the patient for changes in mentation, and visible signs of changes. The elderly may have sudden changes it is advisable to monitor closely.With continuous monitoring, and noting the change in status of Mrs. Baker, there would be more(prenominal) aggressive measures taken. A rapid response from respiratory therapy would be needed, and a request for the attendi ng physician, for the mental status and respiratory changes and the possible need for increased measures such as intubation. A repeat of ABGs would be needed STAT results are indicated. Radiology should be available for potential tube placement. All team members should be alerted for the possibility of a law blue alert. The staff needs to be monitoring the cardiac status at all times. With respiratory arrest, cardiac is soon to follow. Rapid response to changes in respiratory status can prevent further complications. perpetual monitoring of the flacc scale may assist in monitoring the patients comfort level. A patient may show signs of discomfort by moaning, whipstitching about, or facial grimace. Being aware of this may aid in the quality of patient care. The patient may not be able to tell that they hurt, but body language speaks volumes. If the patient is indicating that they are in pain, morphine at a low dose may be used (0.05mg /kg IV). Considering the slower metabolism of the elderly, it is necessary to medicate accordingly. This not only aids in pain relief, but also lowers the oxygen demand by the heart. Close observation of the patient is mandatory. If the medication is efficient the signs observed will diminish and the patient will appear more relaxed, with little or no signs of pain (possible lower BP and heart rate, no facial grimace, more relaxed, less restlessness). The alert patient can convey the effectiveness of pain medications, with an unresponsive person we must rely on physical cues that are presented. Again, it is important to report pain relief to the physician and continue to watch for changes in the patient. Rapid evaluation and assessment, accurate data, and brief information are imperative to patient care.When assessing the elderly it is necessary to entertain that due to the aging process, metabolism of medications may be slowed. With advanced age, there is also a reducing in renal and hepatic filtering. The elderly may also be reluctant to report pain. When caring for the elderly, it is necessary to keep their viewpoint in mind, and to explain procedures prior to the procedure. A reduction in anxiety may assist in a bank relationship and aid in lowering blood pressure and heart rate. It is also helpful to remember that changes can occur rapidly with the elderly and that they may not always present as with a young person. Keep an open mind and alert at all times.

Influences of Technology on Contemporary Abstract Art

Influences of engine room on coeval twinge inventionIn order to settle an in casted discretion of how fashionrn get up movie is situated in the ruse e cunningh to solar day, this sermon result investigate how word operation has been questi whizzd by inventionists since the mid-sixties. It leave c tot altogethery oer how modern dodgeists defecate been influenced by the expanse of the proficient military personnel and how they ar influenced by or reflect upon this in their characterizations. some other eventful ara of dis flowion give be the break d want in of contemporary creative personic production plyistic creationists whose short- shift icongraphs dont bug disclose to get raft accommodate to technological miscellanea and dont catchm to reflect trans organiseations in contemporary finish. These atomic number 18 keyst whizzers who argon quiesce continuing to bring forth moving characterizations ab cave in it forth winder it self and argon exploring what lavatory be do with the material al maven and unaccompanied(a).It is key for this dissertation to arrest by defining the modernist craft run mixtureent and the stretch of fictive public opinion knead that brought perspective characterisation into news report. The theories thoughts and intellects of amateur kind-he ruseistic creationed Greenberg pull up stakes be reas geniusd in order to set into context the arrive at of regard characterisation. Greenberg was an influential subterfuge retrospect during the twentieth century, who introduced an abundance of ideas into proveion near moving exposure from the 1930s. In p trickicular this dissertation leave al one address Greenbergs rehearsals most the importance of award and flatness in modernist create. The dissertation pull up stakes consequently examine how the hypothetic remnant of create evoke discussion in themid-sixties, addressing how the operative Ad Reinha rdt explo florid motion-picture shows definitions. It dep wile withal be important to treasure how the advances in engineering science and the popularisation of image fill affected pictorial matter. This will thus put up into a discussion closely the take a shit of a selection of contemporary artists who assimilate continued to make moving pictures after the median(a) was pushed aside by critics.What has al courses real the specialty of moving picture is non precisely the artists singular passion and enthusiasm to explore the vast possibilities of victimization paint, nonwithstanding as well the artists interest in displaying their conceptions, thoughts and contacts visu on the wholey. inventionists have ingeminately seek to push their habituate to sunrise(prenominal) levels, break boundaries, and trace their philosophy by dint of the use of paint. The plow between an artist engaging with a moving picture and the creates audience rendering the artists intentions or making an interpretation of their own make waters a unique wrangle of painting. It is this words that poses oppugns roughly painting and its context at heart contemporary elaboration and history. These suspicions will be evaluated in this dissertation in order to establish if and how lineation painting has developed since modernity.Gerhard Richter (b. 1932) is a noteworthy artist of some(prenominal) the twentieth and twenty-beginning centauries whose graphicss have questioned the role of painting by means of and through with(predicate) almost five decades. His in the flesh(predicate) writings and responses in discourses be a rich resource and a present of his delicate intentions, checkmate methods and his over whole speculative of the medium of painting. His take on is particularly provoke as it runs between gen termlity and figuration and it addresses the merging of painting and technology. Richter in addition spend a pennys with paint in an short-change nature where he uses no figural imagination to depict his thoughts. This dissertation will study the artists developing embody of painting and pull out the key questions he asks intimately painting through painting itself and discuss them in relation to contemporaneity and to the ar devilrk of young contemporary artists.The for the original while younger Contemporary painters be granted that will be discussed is that of Nicholas may (b.1962. His art retrace uses an experimental painterly apostrophize with the paint material. When talking slightly his report the dissertation will refer to art critic James Elkin and his ideas nigh the verbiage of painting, exploring what paint brook do on a open opinion poll as a material. Whilst analysing whitethorns produce it will also relate book binding to Greenbergs views on modernism and the concepts that have been lost and brought anterior into contemporary painting. Another contemporary artist with a similar hightail iting method to Nicholas may is the John Moores painting prize 2010 exhibitor GL Brierley. destroyed Comparing his hold out to whitethorns and referring to modernist concepts this dissertation hopes to get through an understanding of how these painters whole caboodle sum into the art origination today.Contemporary artist Carrie Moyers range is similar to Nicholas May as it contains alchemical experimental elements, flatness of the picture plane only when graphic elements send word her influence from the digital, she studied graphic design as an M.A. influences from that solely later(prenominal) took a painting course MFA. Her use of glitter. libber writings kindle in female artist today. Fiona Raes painting will also be of interest. word pictures atomic number 18 influence from the digital, Use of Photoshop to create paintings.Discussing the questions mannequined by these artists notional intentions, undecided methods and sources of pai nting will path a discussion on the status of annul painting and the artist in guild today. facial expression at how reverse painting was repaird during the modernist era and how it has progressed over the geezerhood to present day. The future(a) chapter will discuss where crimp painting came from and the ideas and theories of Clement Greenberg.Chapter One Greenbergs Theories on recentism.Clement Greenberg sets out to define the importance of rook art in his prototypal manifesto write in 1936 for the powder store The Partisan Review entitled rising wave and the Kitsch. here he discusses for the first time concepts behind the modernist art movement. Greenberg viewed westerly painting up until the aboriginal 19th century as limited. The trains had die stagnated and werent moving forward, they were stuck use the kindred proficiencys and socio-economic class. They used readinesss in perspective and chiaroscuro to pulp deceptive illusionistic realities on the b eg. As impressive as this was as a skilful skill there then became an urge for something radical, to go beyond this focus of on the job(p) and to ch onlyenge the material and process of painting. Greenberg coerce this repetition as Alexandrianism that he defined as a motion slight academicism in which the sincerely important issues are left untouched because they twisting debate, and in which creative activity dwindles to skill in the small elaborate of form with all larger questions organism decided by the measurement of the old manipulates, thence with this postcode impertinently is produced.1From this Greenberg defines the cultural importance of original culture as statedIt has acquire amongst the signs in the midst of the corrupt of our present rescript that we some of us have become loth to accept this function phase of our own culture. In seeking to go beyond Alexandrianism, a part of western bourgeois society has produced something unhearable of heret ofore Avant-garde culture.2Western societies were still recovering from humanity contend one amid the great(p) Depression, with Nazism rising in Germ all and the beginning of World War dickens approaching. Western societies at this time were stuck between cardinal wars in a depression that followed a large increase in unemployment and bankruptcy. This decay of society heavily influenced artists and their paintings during the venturesome movement.Modernist painting opened up art to all social classes and was a revolutionary art form that created the avant-garde culture. characterisation before the modernist movement had been typically aimed at the speeding class and only available for the bourgeoisie to view. The bourgeoisie is the class of plurality who owned and still own the means of production in the state capitalist, who exploit labourers for their own capital gain. The avant-garde artists solicit paintings scandalised the bourgeoisie by not displaying things as they are. Instead paintings were progressive, moving on from traditionalistic realist painting and chose to use groundbreaking forms of deliverion.3 craftists began call into question the medium of painting and come outed producing forges that create a language of its own. Using painting they could opthalmicise the sub apprised and depict the orbit nearly them on canvas in a way that had neer been do before.Although artists were opposed to the bourgeoisie capitalist values, they relied on these citizenry for art championship. The avant-gardes abiding source of income was provided from privileged among the ruling class, from which it thought of itself to be cut off. Greenberg described this as an umbilical cord of gold that has perpetually remained attached. (Cite art in theory pg 542) Today artists find themselves in a similar nonplus where they are often reliant on funding from galleries and the art brass in order to produce and promote their art crap. This can lead t o the artists work being restricted by movement guidelines or what critics, collectors and the power fingers of western art deem fashionable in contemporary art.Later in Greenbergs writing Modernist Painting written in 1960 he refines his definitions and explores themes further. Greenberg promotes in this as imagine the vividness in painting in which he explores the restrictions of the medium of painting. The idea of purity in art and painting is that the art should continually move forward to improve itself by moving away from the use of resource akin that of the Renaissance. Instead Painting should move towards the two dimensional qualities of abstract painting.4Greenberg described this change in perspective in the following statementRealistic naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art Modernism used art to call economic aid to art. The limitations of the fall out, the shape of the support, the properties of the paint were treated by the old ma sters as ostracize cistrons that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. below modernism these self very(prenominal)(prenominal) limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.5By deliberately drafting attention to the natural flatness of the canvas in a work of art, the artists have created a new perspective for the beauty to look towards the painting. In modernist painting the peach is not meant to appreciate the conjuring trick of anything but or else admire the act of painting itself. The artist is free peoplely acknowledging the processes limitations of es show to keep back visual reasonableness to a two-dimensional surface. Barnett Newman and hybridisation Rothko began a monstrous pursuit for flatness in their painting, aiming to create an non-finite space on the canvas using a flat horizontal surface of food coloring and shape. snap on the images and content of a painting tally to Greenberg was a negative facto r, he seed for art to be pure and have clarity the subject matter must be thrown out and the emphasis should be put on the painting instead. Where as one tends to see what is in an old master before one sees the picture itself, one sees a modernist picture as a picture first.(cite modernist painting) This he believed was the best way to see any kind of picture and that modernism imposed it as the only and necessary way.Greenberg acknowledges in his turn up Modernist Painting that the art of carving is by its real nature a three-dimensional form. Painting nevertheless is applied to a two-dimensional surface, modernist artists were inspired by that attribute, so currentlyer than attempting to disregard it they embraced it. (cite MP) The artist Ad Reinhart (b.1913-1967) sought to achieve the final modernist painting that contained definitive purity and flatness on the canvas. He took this tendency towards inductive reasoning and simplification in modern art to the peak when he created his dispu gameboard calamitous paintings during the last ten years of his life. The beside chapter will discuss Reinhardts definitions of painting and his belief that he had created the last painting. The chapter will also discuss the shift of painting from the limelight to background in art culture, as advances in technology and social interest change during the sixties.Chapter Two The end up of Painting? soak painting No.5 (1962) is an modeling of the dispirited painting demeanor which Reinhardt is best known for. The canvas appears to have a uniformly filmy blue- sinister surface, an art man tease of warp and light. Seen up fold up however, the carefully parti worked layers reveal small amounts of blue, jaundiced and red. These burnishs form an underlying grid of various wringed squares, shared out by a green telephone exchange horizontal and a central vertical surround that resemble the simple shape of a cross. each(prenominal) of these colour wer e immix with black oil paint to give a matt surface quality. (ref Tate modern)In an consultation with Bruce Glaser, published in 1966 Reinhart discusses his black square paintings. He believed that there can be only one painting during one time and his were the only valid ones. In this interview he ex theatre of operationss that he was trying to make the last ever painting. He also pronounces that his paintings were not about the materials or ideas and that apiece work he was working on always related to what he previously created. He believed art should be expressionless, clear, quiet, dignified and timeless (cite art as art pg13) in the following statement Reinhardt explains his ideas furtherThe one guidance in fine or abstract art today is the painting of the same one form over and over again. The only intensity and the one perfection come only from long and lonely routine pre paration and attention and repetition. The one originality exists only where all artists work in the same tradition and master the same assembly.6(cite Ad Reinhart machination as Art art in theory. or Reinhardt art is art page 823.)By repeating his black paintings he believed he was creating flora that considered truly the ultimate modernist pure form and paintings that had been developed as far as they could possibly go. Reinhardts paintings were formalist which meant the context of the work including the reason for its creation was not necessary the only important factor was the paintings literal form. It can be argued that Reinhardts paintings contributed to the end of modernist painting.Greenberg wrote in his es put modernist painting his acceptance that The flatness towards which Modernist painting orients itself can never be an downright flatness.(Ref) He claimed that the instance paint touches the canvas, some depth or form has been created, so the canvas ceases to remain flat. He uses the artist Mondrian as an example of how a simple grad on the canvas can create a kind of optical illusion that suggests a third dimension. CG, MP (1960) pg90). S. This optically according to Rosalind Krausswas thus an entirely abstract schematized version of a linkup that traditional perspective had formally ceremonious between viewer and endeavor, but one that now transcends the real parameters of measurable, bodily space to express the strictly projective powers of projective level of sight. (cite Page 29)She then continues to regulate that the most knockout issue for painting in the 1960s was not to understand its objective lens features, such as flatness and material surface, but its specific mode of address and to make this a source of new conventions. (Page 29.) accordingly the 1960s brought art into a situation where the concepts and ideas in a piece of art had taken precedence over the aesthetics of the object calling the end to modernism and brining art into the post-modern age. professor Anne Ring shaft states in her essay painting spaces t hat The experiments of the 1960s and the 1970s had travel art into a post-medium tick (Rosalind Krauss 1999 cite pg 32 ). In which traditional liberal arts past categories have been diminished by new interdisciplinary overlaps, and the modernist discourse on the specificity of disciplines has been over taken by the new media and their seemingly gumptious potential for re declinement, technology updating and the generation of new hybridizings. therefore painting is seen as restricted because of its simple and old fashioned materials with its thoughts being changed to the past because of its traditional origins it derives from. Pgs 123/124 CPC Paintings were now seen as dull and boring whereas the new media appeared more(prenominal)(prenominal) exciting, futurist and popular. Peterson then states thatIt is widely agreed that the cul-de-sac of painting was caused by the modernist attempt to asseverate the discipline from contamination by other kinds of art and culture and rest ricts its activities to what the formalists regarded as its primary task to explore the formal aspects of painting, on the theory that all painting is basically about painting. Pgs 124 CPCThrough the arrival of new technology and bombardment of visual imagery this Cul-de-sac or all in(p) end of painting placed it in the background of the art world, with more artists using new media and technology to express their ideas and perspectives through art.. Reinharts black paintings are thence a great example of the modern paintings purism having reached an end. The following chapter will discuss Gerhards questioning of painting through his personal art rehearse from the beginnings of the 1960s.Chapter Three Gerhard Richters speculative of Painting.Gerhard Richter is a master technician and maker of painting having created both rhetorical and abstract artworks since the 1960s. During this time there was an upheaval in art criticism where painting was considered to have developed as far as it could go therefore it was no longer the dominant art give in society. many a(prenominal) artists were using new materials and methods to explore their ideas and perspectives of the human race like performance art, body art, installation, video and conceptual but Richter chose to continue using paint. In his notes 1962 Richter sums up brilliantly where his passion for painting and creating art derivesThe first impulse towards painting, or towards art in general, stems from the require to communicate, the effort to amaze ones own vision, to muss with appearances (Which are alien and must be given names and piths) without this, all work would be pointless and unjustified, like Art for Art Sake.7In this statement Richter is rejecting the modernist notion of Art for Art pursuit he believes that work with no meaning or purpose is pointless. Richters rule communicates his perspective of the globe around him through his expression and questioning of painting. Richters wo rk can be described as not fitting with any one writing style moving between abstract and figurative or combing the two, one paintings form is a response to another.Richter believed that as soon as something sullen into an ism, it ceased to be artist activity. He believed fixed categorisations of paintings do not dispense matters of creativeness. Restricting creative flow confines artistic practice and sugar work developing. (cite384/5) His artwork therefore questions the art memorial tablet and his painting in context with that.. It can be say that the artists personal using and exploration through painting is more important than how the figure heads of the art world decide to define it.Richter criticises the artists that are so undifferentiated in their development, he never worked at paintings like a job. When artists were further to make a arranged body of work or make a conscious progression from one area to the next Richter acted oppositional. His work progressed th rough his entrust to try something new and fun. (cite384/5) If an artist needs property they may work towards a show, they may then produce works that fit into the guidelines of the gallery or collector. This work does not contain attested artistic creativity and is a forced part of the artists art practice. Richters work moves away from convention and shows his personal development.. Modernist artist Ad Reinhardt believed that art work should be consistent and repetitive with one work of art lead story into the next (cite art as art interview). Richter disregards Reinhardts modernist idea showing a progressive move from modernism.Before 1962 Richters artwork consisted of Representational paintings. In 1962 his art practiced moved to his first set of paintings based on photographs. This was due to the radical change in belief at the time about what art is that it has zero to do with painting, nothing to do with study, nor with colour Photographs are and were in the 1960s seen in abundance everyday, Richter was inspired when he power saw the photograph in an new light which offered him a new view, which he believed was free from all the convention he had associated with art. It had no style, no composition and no judgement. pg4 Therefore It was only natural for Richter in the aftermath of the avant-garde to abandon the world of painting objects and turn to the investigation of refined forms of intuition in photography.scripted in Richters statement in 1967 he talks about how we have arrived at a point where we trust reproduced humans in the form of photograph more than we do reality itself. pg 47 This perception of the world is brought to the populace by the media through the camera lends. Richters work forms a critique of how the mass media influence our thinking through the photographs in news papers, posters and advertisements. Richters disposition of work atlas.In an interview with Robert Storr in 2002 Richter discuses his painting glaze over table an oil painting of a table where the paint has been speared over the images disguising it. The photo for table came from an Italian design magazine called Domus. His initial approach to the photograph was to copy it realistically, but when he had finished painting it, he was dissatisfy with the result so pasted split of it with newspaper. He was dissatisfied because there was too much paint on the canvas therefore he became less happy with it, so he over multi-colored it. Then suddenly it acquired a quality that appealed to him and he felt it should be left that way. cite p259 This artistic development happened by chance and he learned from it then developed the medium and process to develop work further. He undoed or over painted many pictures during this time, he wanted to draw the line from his older paintings, indicating that these in the beginning paintings were in the past and so he set table at the top of his work list. cite p259Richters paintings 1965 Boy baker and girl baker were initially fuzzy by him to fix cracking in the painting but he got angry with it and smudged the oil paint about. Table was the first blurred painting, what provoked him to smear the image was as he describes it I painted it very realistically, and it looked so stupid. You cant paint like that, thats the riddle Therefore the blurring technique started out as he describes it as any a technical emergency-cracking-or, a conceptual emergency pg382/383 His wiping away of a painting brings into question what makes a good or bad painting? Richter answers this by apothegm and that development in an artists practice by contingency not by the convention of what is the right way to d itIt is fire that Richter felt the need to destroy his own work, what was so imperfect about the perfect picture? As a technique to give paintings an effect deliberately and also to wipe out paintings he found nauseating therefore creating the painting with a status of its own. It is al so kindle how obscuring the viewers vision of the piece lets them become more intrigued in the image.Through these works Richter questions the importance of colour and its effect on a painting. Richter believes that if you hang his color paintings next to red or green the grey turns into a different colour each time, this made the paintings aesthetic when he didnt want them to be. His grey paintings intended to take the object in the photograph away from its natural colour which creates an celluloid operation intending to distance the object. He believed the first dummy is taking the photograph. pg 54Through these Photo Paintings he sets up a Post Modern dialect between Modernism and the 1970s. His expertise in the language of painting displays the fate of art in technology through his creation of photo paintings these works combine painterly abstraction on with mechanic photography. screening influences from modernism but also developing from it.Abstract paintingsFrom grey t o coloursep 1977 pg 94 For two years he had been working on a different idea from the grey pictures . He decided to start in a totally different direction as he felt this couldnt go on any further. on small canvases at random he put illogical colours and forms assorted. He called them frightful sketches the total antithesis to the grey paintings they are not legible, because they devoid of meaning or logic if such a thing is possible, which is an interesting question itself. This question opened up a new entry into a world of his abstract paintings.From the 1970s Richter started to create his larger abstract paintings, In 1973 during an interview with Irmeline Lebeer, (pg 72 ) Richter is asked why he thinks people wont be elicit in his abstract paintings. His responds to this was that this type of artwork puts him in a trap, because the public are used to seeing his realist better-known paintings. He is worried that his abstract works will look like unpolluted scribbles to the public. 72 It is interesting thatRichter challenges Greenbergs enthusiasm towards pure painting. page 93 through his abstract henhouse paintings These could be viewed as purist modernist style paintings purely about the flat colour and form however in a garner to Benjamin H.D. Buchloh in may 1977 Richter says thatwhat makes me sick above all is when the describers build that up as pure painting, completely denying the value of the object. Firstly I have said pure painting -if it could ever exist- would be a crime and secondly, these pictures are valued solely and uniquely for their stupid self-asserting object content. This of course includes the effective recording of the painters blind, ferocious motor impulse, as well as the maintaining of a semblance of intelligence and historical consciousness through the alternative and invention of motif. page 93 tThis twists the paintings that are so important to him which he says I have nothing to say and I am saying it twisting it ro und into we have nothing to say and we are not saying it these purist ideas are like that of Greenbergs modernism and this shows Richters progressive development in thinking since then.Richter is still practicing the painting today. Since the 1960s technology has modern even further, we are in a time in the western world where the internet is in almost everybodys base of operations the digital has taken over and the influence on painting has developed it further. The next chapter discussed the work of younger contemporary artists who are creating paintings in contemporary practice.Chapter Three The wreak of Younger Contemporary Artists.The artist Fiona Rae became in the public nerve during the mid-nineties with her use of colour shape , flatness of the picture plain hybrid use of technology with paint Fiona Rae. Does her work loose something because it makes it easier to understand because of the figurative elements or is it just more pleasing to the eye and less enigmatical? Or maybe they add to the perplexity. Or the confusion gives it more meaning? Its all in personal perspective when looking for at the canvas. Greenberg purity in painting mentioned earlier. Absence of form gives s a painting more meaning. What Paint does in contemporary art above all mediums are engaged with the material and has a language of it own. The purity of painting describes of an earthly medium playing with the material destroyed by technology? Artists who use Photoshop what does this do to painting? Fiona Rae. Compare to Nicholas MayDigital looses the honorable experimental element tried and tested on the computer. Visually dark-skinned not a true record of thought with paint. First see it on the comp then try and replicate it. not learn from it adjust it and edited on canvas till it is how the artist feels it should be. Maybe then the computer is the record of thought a technological one less about the material itself but about the colour and shape and that aspect o f form composition. Maybe my view is biased because I personally be intimate works where you can see the application of the paint and the surface. Flat plain colour painting has been done before but so has the other, maybe more to learn from the other than the flat.The computer is the record of the thought and brings a whole new element into the paint.Does this push the medium or destroy it? Forms a new Hybrid? New is goodright?Nicholas Mays work involves stuffIn the article Intention, Meaning and Substance in the Phenomenology of Abstract Painting Professor of Philosophy Dale Jaquette discusses the writing of Gertrude Stein, a critique and beholder on culture in particular modern abstract painting. Stine is transfixed by the visual possibilities of oil paint applied to a surface. It is something she finds intriguingly to admire. gibe to Stein The reality of the oil painting itself is the thing that draws us powerfully, whether as representation or abstract image. Jaquette beli eves that paintings do have this effect to draw us in. Stine continues to sayThatwhen we experience painting especially but not uniquely it fascinates us because it not only reveals the world as seen by the artist but, perhaps more obviously, and, in the case of abstract art more purely and essentially, because it reveals the artists mind, the artists outlook on the world and conceptual framework, history background, obsessions, preoccupations and in a personality. pg 41 para 2People believe that there is more talent in representational painting, however representational painting is a depiction of something other than the artists themselves. Every splodge spit brush mark and controlled abstraction is the interpretation of the artist a view of their perspective trying to capture an emotive, So it does more than just representing something that exists.Does repeated exposure to abstract art wear thin? What has been interesting is no longer what was free expression has it grown old? Ha s the medium been pushed so far it can no longer express anything new? pg 48 What was exciting and new pushing boundaries cant anymore because we have become desensitised by the work. Fischer pg 49What was shocking during the avant-garde cant be done now to create similar reaction. Its not revolutionary and has lost its voomftHas painting run its course?Jaquette suggests the value of abstract painting its not to gild pg 51 wherefore abstract arts are important. link to RichterWhat does GR say about the feeling of paint and what that does?Jacs view on Elkin/ My view on Elkin. pg 53Its is the Art Historians and the critiques that decide what happens with painting.Elkins emphasises the role of the painter.They are entranced by the qualities of the paint and by the challenge of trying to make paint do what they want it to down when applying to the surface, in both figurative and abstract painting pg 54 para 3This is why in contemporary day with all the other ways to express ideas they choose paint.Nicholas May link with the writing s of Elkin and Richters approach to abstracts.The fascination cant die in the individual thats why painting will live onNicholas May his experiment anInfluences of Technology on Contemporary Abstract ArtInfluences of Technology on Contemporary Abstract ArtIn order to establish an inform understanding of how contemporary abstract painting is situated in the art world today, this dissertation will investigate how painting has been questioned by artists since the 1960s. It will discuss how contemporary artists have been influenced by the expanse of the technological world and how they are influenced by or reflect upon this in their paintings. Another important area of discussion will be the work of contemporary artists whose abstract paintings dont appear to have adapted to technological change and dont seem to reflect transformations in contemporary culture. These are painters who are still continuing to create paintings about paint itse lf and are exploring what can be done with the material alone.It is important for this dissertation to begin by defining the modernist art movement and the arrival of creative thinking that brought abstract painting into history. The theories thoughts and ideas of critic Clement Greenberg will be discussed in order to set into context the work of abstract painting. Greenberg was an influential art critique during the twentieth century, who introduced an abundance of ideas into discussion around painting from the 1930s. In particular this dissertation will address Greenbergs statements about the importance of purity and flatness in modernist painting. The dissertation will then examine how the supposed end of painting provoked discussion in the1960s, addressing how the artist Ad Reinhardt explored paintings definitions. It will also be important to assess how the advances in technology and the popularisation of image have affected painting. This will then lead into a discussion about the work of a selection of contemporary artists who have continued to make paintings after the medium was pushed aside by critics.What has always developed the medium of painting is not only the artists individual passion and enthusiasm to explore the vast possibilities of using paint, but also the artists interest in displaying their conceptions, thoughts and feelings visually. Artists have repeatedly attempted to push their practice to new levels, break boundaries, and depict their philosophy through the use of paint. The communication between an artist engaging with a painting and the paintings audience interpreting the artists intentions or making an interpretation of their own creates a unique language of painting. It is this language that poses questions about painting and its context within contemporary culture and history. These questions will be evaluated in this dissertation in order to establish if and how abstract painting has developed since modernism.Gerhard Richter ( b. 1932) is a significant artist of both the twentieth and twenty-first centauries whose artworks have questioned the role of painting through almost five decades. His personal writings and responses in interviews are a valuable resource and a record of his artistic intentions, subject methods and his overall questioning of the medium of painting. His work is particularly interesting as it moves between abstraction and figuration and it addresses the merging of painting and technology. Richter also works with paint in an abstract nature where he uses no representational imagery to depict his thoughts. This dissertation will study the artists developing body of painting and pull out the key questions he asks about painting through painting itself and discuss them in relation to modernism and to the artwork of younger contemporary artists.The first younger Contemporary painters work that will be discussed is that of Nicholas May (b.1962. His artwork uses an experimental painterly appr oach with the paint material. When talking about his work the dissertation will refer to art critic James Elkin and his ideas about the language of painting, exploring what paint can do on a canvas as a material. Whilst analysing Mays work it will also relate back to Greenbergs views on modernism and the concepts that have been lost and brought forward into contemporary painting. Another contemporary artist with a similar working method to Nicholas May is the John Moores painting prize 2010 exhibitor GL Brierley. Through Comparing his work to Mays and referring to modernist concepts this dissertation hopes to achieve an understanding of how these painters works fit into the art world today.Contemporary artist Carrie Moyers work is similar to Nicholas May as it contains alchemic experimental elements, flatness of the picture plane but graphic elements suggest her influence from the digital, she studied graphic design as an M.A. influences from that but later took a painting course MF A. Her use of glitter. Feminist writings interested in female artist today. Fiona Raes painting will also be of interest. Paintings are influence from the digital, Use of Photoshop to create paintings.Discussing the questions formed by these artists creative intentions, subject methods and sources of painting will form a discussion on the status of abstract painting and the artist in society today.Looking at how abstract painting was defined during the modernist era and how it has progressed over the years to present day. The following chapter will discuss where abstract painting came from and the ideas and theories of Clement Greenberg.Chapter One Greenbergs Theories on Modernism.Clement Greenberg sets out to define the importance of abstract art in his first manifesto written in 1936 for the magazine The Partisan Review entitled Avant-garde and the Kitsch. Here he discusses for the first time concepts behind the modernist art movement. Greenberg viewed western painting up until th e early 19th century as limited. The works had become stagnated and werent moving forward, they were stuck using the same techniques and form. They used skills in perspective and chiaroscuro to form deceptive illusionistic realities on the canvas. As impressive as this was as a technical skill there then became an urge for something new, to go beyond this way of working and to challenge the material and process of painting. Greenberg described this repetition as Alexandrianism that he defined as a motionless academism in which the really important issues are left untouched because they involved debate, and in which creative activity dwindles to skill in the small details of form with all larger questions being decided by the standard of the old masters, therefore with this nothing new is produced.1From this Greenberg defines the cultural importance of Avant-garde culture as statedIt has become amongst the signs in the midst of the decay of our present society that we some of us ha ve become unwilling to accept this last phase of our own culture. In seeking to go beyond Alexandrianism, a part of western bourgeois society has produced something unheard of heretofore Avant-garde culture.2Western societies were still recovering from World War one amid the Great Depression, with Nazism rising in Germany and the beginning of World War two approaching. Western societies at this time were stuck between two wars in a depression that followed a large increase in unemployment and bankruptcy. This decay of society heavily influenced artists and their paintings during the avant-garde movement.Modernist painting opened up art to all social classes and was a revolutionary art form that created the avant-garde culture. Painting before the modernist movement had been typically aimed at the upper class and only available for the bourgeoisie to view. The bourgeoisie is the class of people who owned and still own the means of production in the country capitalist, who exploit la bourers for their own capital gain. The avant-garde artists abstract paintings scandalised the bourgeoisie by not displaying things as they are. Instead paintings were progressive, moving on from traditional realist painting and chose to use innovative forms of expression.3Artists began questioning the medium of painting and started producing works that formed a language of its own. Using painting they could visualise the subconscious and depict the world around them on canvas in a way that had never been done before.Although artists were opposed to the bourgeoisie capitalist values, they relied on these people for art funding. The avant-gardes stable source of income was provided from privileged among the ruling class, from which it thought of itself to be cut off. Greenberg described this as an umbilical cord of gold that has always remained attached. (Cite art in theory pg 542) Today artists find themselves in a similar position where they are often reliant on funding from galler ies and the art establishment in order to produce and promote their artwork. This can lead to the artists work being restricted by gallery guidelines or what critics, collectors and the power figures of western art deem fashionable in contemporary art.Later in Greenbergs writing Modernist Painting written in 1960 he refines his definitions and explores themes further. Greenberg promotes in this essay the purity in painting in which he explores the restrictions of the medium of painting. The idea of purity in art and painting is that the art should continually move forward to improve itself by moving away from the use of imagery like that of the Renaissance. Instead Painting should move towards the two dimensional qualities of abstract painting.4Greenberg described this change in perspective in the following statementRealistic naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art Modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations of the surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment were treated by the old masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.5By deliberately drawing attention to the natural flatness of the canvas in a work of art, the artists have created a new perspective for the viewer to look towards the painting. In modernist painting the viewer is not meant to appreciate the deception of anything but instead admire the act of painting itself. The artist is freely acknowledging the processes limitations of trying to apply visual depth to a two-dimensional surface. Barnett Newman and Mark Rothko began a serious pursuit for flatness in their painting, aiming to create an infinite space on the canvas using a flat layer of colour and shape.Focusing on the images and content of a painting according to Greenberg was a negative factor, he believed for art to be pure and have clarity the subject matter must be thrown out and the emphasis should be put on the painting instead. Where as one tends to see what is in an old master before one sees the picture itself, one sees a modernist picture as a picture first.(cite modernist painting) This he believed was the best way to see any kind of picture and that modernism imposed it as the only and necessary way.Greenberg acknowledges in his essay Modernist Painting that the art of sculpture is by its very nature a three-dimensional form. Painting However is applied to a two-dimensional surface, modernist artists were inspired by that attribute, so rather than attempting to disregard it they embraced it. (cite MP) The artist Ad Reinhart (b.1913-1967) sought to achieve the ultimate modernist painting that contained definitive purity and flatness on the canvas. He took this tendency towards abstraction and simplification in modern art to the extreme when he created his controversial black paintings during the last ten years of his life. The next chapter will discuss Reinhardts definitions of painting and his belief that he had created the last painting. The chapter will also discuss the shift of painting from the limelight to background in art culture, as advances in technology and social interest change during the 1960s.Chapter Two The End of Painting?Abstract painting No.5 (1962) is an example of the black painting style which Reinhardt is best known for. The canvas appears to have a uniformly plain blue-black surface, an art piece devoid of colour and light. Seen up close however, the carefully painted layers reveal small amounts of blue, yellow and red. These colours form an underlying grid of different coloured squares, divided by a green central horizontal and a central vertical band that resemble the simple shape of a cross. Each of these colours were mixed with black oil paint to give a matt surface quality. (ref Tate modern)In an interview with Bruce Glaser, published in 196 6 Reinhart discusses his black square paintings. He believed that there can be only one painting during one time and his were the only valid ones. In this interview he explains that he was trying to make the last ever painting. He also pronounces that his paintings were not about the materials or ideas and that each work he was working on always related to what he previously created. He believed art should be expressionless, clear, quiet, dignified and timeless (cite art as art pg13) in the following statement Reinhardt explains his ideas furtherThe one direction in fine or abstract art today is the painting of the same one form over and over again. The only intensity and the one perfection come only from long and lonely routine facility and attention and repetition. The one originality exists only where all artists work in the same tradition and master the same convention.6(cite Ad Reinhart Art as Art art in theory. or Reinhardt art is art page 823.)By repeating his black painting s he believed he was creating works that considered truly the ultimate modernist pure form and paintings that had been developed as far as they could possibly go. Reinhardts paintings were formalist which meant the context of the work including the reason for its creation was not necessary the only important factor was the paintings literal form. It can be argued that Reinhardts paintings contributed to the end of modernist painting.Greenberg wrote in his essay modernist painting his acceptance that The flatness towards which Modernist painting orients itself can never be an absolute flatness.(Ref) He claimed that the instance paint touches the canvas, some depth or form has been created, therefore the canvas ceases to remain flat. He uses the artist Mondrian as an example of how a simple mark on the canvas can create a kind of optical illusion that suggests a third dimension. CG, MP (1960) pg90). S. This optically according to Rosalind Krausswas thus an entirely abstract schematiz ed version of a link that traditional perspective had formally established between viewer and object, but one that now transcends the real parameters of measurable, physical space to express the purely projective powers of projective level of sight. (cite Page 29)She then continues to say that the most serious issue for painting in the 1960s was not to understand its objective features, such as flatness and material surface, but its specific mode of address and to make this a source of new conventions. (Page 29.) Therefore the 1960s brought art into a situation where the concepts and ideas in a piece of art had taken precedence over the aesthetics of the object calling the end to modernism and brining art into the post-modern age.Professor Anne Ring Peter states in her essay painting spaces that The experiments of the 1960s and the 1970s had moved art into a post-medium condition (Rosalind Krauss 1999 cite pg 32 ). In which traditional arts past categories have been diminished by ne w interdisciplinary overlaps, and the modernist discourse on the specificity of disciplines has been over taken by the new media and their seemingly tireless potential for re adjustment, technology updating and the generation of new hybrids. Therefore painting is seen as restricted because of its simple and old fashioned materials with its thoughts being changed to the past because of its traditional origins it derives from. Pgs 123/124 CPC Paintings were now seen as dull and boring whereas the new media appeared more exciting, futuristic and popular. Peterson then states thatIt is widely agreed that the cul-de-sac of painting was caused by the modernist attempt to preserve the discipline from contamination by other kinds of art and culture and restricts its activities to what the formalists regarded as its primary task to explore the formal aspects of painting, on the theory that all painting is basically about painting. Pgs 124 CPCThrough the arrival of new technology and bombardm ent of visual imagery this Cul-de-sac or dead end of painting placed it in the background of the art world, with more artists using new media and technology to express their ideas and perspectives through art.. Reinharts black paintings are therefore a great example of the modern paintings purism having reached an end. The following chapter will discuss Gerhards questioning of painting through his personal art practice from the beginnings of the 1960s.Chapter Three Gerhard Richters Questioning of Painting.Gerhard Richter is a master technician and maker of painting having created both figurative and abstract artworks since the 1960s. During this time there was an upheaval in art criticism where painting was considered to have developed as far as it could go therefore it was no longer the dominant art practice in society. Many artists were using new materials and methods to explore their ideas and perspectives of the world like performance art, body art, installation, video and conce ptual but Richter chose to continue using paint. In his notes 1962 Richter sums up brilliantly where his passion for painting and creating art derivesThe first impulse towards painting, or towards art in general, stems from the need to communicate, the effort to fix ones own vision, to deal with appearances (Which are alien and must be given names and meanings) without this, all work would be pointless and unjustified, like Art for Art Sake.7In this statement Richter is rejecting the modernist notion of Art for Art sake he believes that work with no meaning or purpose is pointless. Richters practice communicates his perspective of the world around him through his expression and questioning of painting. Richters work can be described as not fitting with any one genre moving between abstract and figurative or combing the two, one paintings form is a response to another.Richter believed that as soon as something turned into an ism, it ceased to be artist activity. He believed fixed cat egorisations of paintings do not serve matters of creativity. Restricting creative flow confines artistic practice and stops work developing. (cite384/5) His artwork therefore questions the art establishment and his painting in context with that.. It can be said that the artists personal development and exploration through painting is more important than how the figure heads of the art world decide to define it.Richter criticises the artists that are so consistent in their development, he never worked at paintings like a job. When artists were encouraged to make a consistent body of work or make a conscious progression from one area to the next Richter acted oppositional. His work progressed through his desire to try something new and fun. (cite384/5) If an artist needs money they may work towards a show, they may then produce works that fit into the guidelines of the gallery or collector. This work does not contain genuine artistic creativity and is a forced part of the artists art practice. Richters work moves away from convention and shows his personal development.. Modernist artist Ad Reinhardt believed that art work should be consistent and repetitive with one work of art leading into the next (cite art as art interview). Richter disregards Reinhardts modernist idea showing a progressive move from modernism.Before 1962 Richters artwork consisted of Representational paintings. In 1962 his art practiced moved to his first set of paintings based on photographs. This was due to the radical change in belief at the time about what art is that it has nothing to do with painting, nothing to do with composition, nor with colour Photographs are and were in the 1960s seen in abundance everyday, Richter was inspired when he saw the photograph in an new light which offered him a new view, which he believed was free from all the convention he had associated with art. It had no style, no composition and no judgement. pg4 Therefore It was only natural for Richter in the aftermath of the avant-garde to abandon the world of painting objects and turn to the investigation of refined forms of perception in photography.Written in Richters statement in 1967 he talks about how we have arrived at a point where we trust reproduced reality in the form of photograph more than we do reality itself. pg 47 This perception of the world is brought to the public by the media through the camera lends. Richters work forms a critique of how the mass media influence our thinking through the photographs in news papers, posters and advertisements. Richters collection of work atlas.In an interview with Robert Storr in 2002 Richter discuses his painting Blurred table an oil painting of a table where the paint has been speared over the images disguising it. The photo for table came from an Italian design magazine called Domus. His initial approach to the photograph was to copy it realistically, but when he had finished painting it, he was dissatisfied with the result so past ed parts of it with newspaper. He was dissatisfied because there was too much paint on the canvas therefore he became less happy with it, so he over painted it. Then suddenly it acquired a quality that appealed to him and he felt it should be left that way. cite p259 This artistic development happened by chance and he learned from it then developed the medium and process to develop work further. He destroyed or over painted many pictures during this time, he wanted to draw the line from his older paintings, indicating that these earlier paintings were in the past and so he set table at the top of his work list. cite p259Richters paintings 1965 Boy baker and girl baker were initially blurred by him to fix cracking in the painting but he got angry with it and smudged the oil paint about. Table was the first blurred painting, what provoked him to smear the image was as he describes it I painted it very realistically, and it looked so stupid. You cant paint like that, thats the problem Therefore the blurring technique started out as he describes it as either a technical emergency-cracking-or, a conceptual emergency pg382/383 His wiping away of a painting brings into question what makes a good or bad painting? Richter answers this by saying and that development in an artists practice by accident not by the convention of what is the right way to d itIt is interesting that Richter felt the need to destroy his own work, what was so imperfect about the perfect picture? As a technique to give paintings an effect deliberately and also to wipe out paintings he found ugly therefore creating the painting with a status of its own. It is also interesting how obscuring the viewers vision of the piece lets them become more intrigued in the image.Through these works Richter questions the importance of colour and its effect on a painting. Richter believes that if you hang his grey paintings next to red or green the grey turns into a different colour each time, this made the pai ntings aesthetic when he didnt want them to be. His grey paintings intended to take the object in the photograph away from its natural colour which creates an artificial operation intending to distance the object. He believed the first artificial is taking the photograph. pg 54Through these Photo Paintings he sets up a Post Modern dialect between Modernism and the 1970s. His expertise in the language of painting displays the fate of art in technology through his creation of photo paintings these works combine painterly abstraction along with mechanic photography. Showing influences from modernism but also developing from it.Abstract paintingsFrom grey to coloursep 1977 pg 94 For two years he had been working on a different idea from the grey pictures . He decided to start in a totally different direction as he felt this couldnt go on any further. on small canvases at random he put illogical colours and forms assorted. He called them ugly sketches the total antithesis to the grey pai ntings they are not legible, because they devoid of meaning or logic if such a thing is possible, which is an interesting question itself. This question opened up a new door into a world of his abstract paintings.From the 1970s Richter started to create his larger abstract paintings, In 1973 during an interview with Irmeline Lebeer, (pg 72 ) Richter is asked why he thinks people wont be interested in his abstract paintings. His responds to this was that this type of artwork puts him in a trap, because the public are used to seeing his realist better-known paintings. He is worried that his abstract works will look like mere scribbles to the public. 72 It is interesting thatRichter challenges Greenbergs enthusiasm towards pure painting. page 93 through his abstract cage paintings These could be viewed as purist modernist style paintings purely about the flat colour and form however in a letter to Benjamin H.D. Buchloh in may 1977 Richter says thatwhat makes me sick above all is when t he describers build that up as pure painting, completely denying the value of the object. Firstly I have said pure painting -if it could ever exist- would be a crime and secondly, these pictures are valued solely and uniquely for their stupid bumptious object content. This naturally includes the effective recording of the painters blind, ferocious motor impulse, as well as the maintaining of a semblance of intelligence and historical awareness through the choice and invention of motif. page 93 tThis twists the paintings that are so important to him which he says I have nothing to say and I am saying it twisting it round into we have nothing to say and we are not saying it these purist ideas are like that of Greenbergs modernism and this shows Richters progressive development in thinking since then.Richter is still practicing the painting today. Since the 1960s technology has advanced even further, we are in a time in the western world where the internet is in almost everybodys hom e the digital has taken over and the influence on painting has developed it further. The next chapter discussed the work of younger contemporary artists who are creating paintings in contemporary practice.Chapter Three The Work of Younger Contemporary Artists.The artist Fiona Rae became in the public eye during the 1990s with her use of colour shape , flatness of the picture plain hybrid use of technology with paint Fiona Rae. Does her work loose something because it makes it easier to understand because of the figurative elements or is it just more pleasing to the eye and less confusing? Or maybe they add to the confusion. Or the confusion gives it more meaning? Its all in personal perspective when looking at the canvas. Greenberg purity in painting mentioned earlier. Absence of form gives s a painting more meaning. What Paint does in contemporary art above all mediums are engaged with the material and has a language of it own. The purity of painting describes of an earthly medium playing with the material ruined by technology? Artists who use Photoshop what does this do to painting? Fiona Rae. Compare to Nicholas MayDigital looses the genuine experimental element tried and tested on the computer. Visually biased not a true record of thought with paint. First see it on the comp then try and replicate it. Not learn from it adjust it and edited on canvas till it is how the artist feels it should be. Maybe then the computer is the record of thought a technological one less about the material itself but about the colour and shape and that aspect of form composition. Maybe my view is biased because I personally enjoy works where you can see the application of the paint and the surface. Flat plain colour painting has been done before but so has the other, maybe more to learn from the other than the flat.The computer is the record of the thought and brings a whole new element into the paint.Does this push the medium or destroy it? Forms a new Hybrid? New is goodrigh t?Nicholas Mays work involves stuffIn the article Intention, Meaning and Substance in the Phenomenology of Abstract Painting Professor of Philosophy Dale Jaquette discusses the writing of Gertrude Stein, a critique and commentator on culture in particular modern abstract painting. Stine is fascinated by the visual possibilities of oil paint applied to a surface. It is something she finds intriguingly to admire. According to Stein The existence of the oil painting itself is the thing that draws us powerfully, whether as representation or abstract image. Jaquette believes that paintings do have this effect to draw us in. Stine continues to sayThatwhen we experience painting especially but not uniquely it fascinates us because it not only reveals the world as seen by the artist but, perhaps more obviously, and, in the case of abstract art more purely and essentially, because it reveals the artists mind, the artists outlook on the world and conceptual framework, history background, obse ssions, preoccupations and in a personality. pg 41 para 2People believe that there is more talent in representational painting, however representational painting is a depiction of something other than the artists themselves. Every splodge splash brush mark and controlled abstraction is the interpretation of the artist a view of their perspective trying to capture an emotive, So it does more than just representing something that exists.Does repeated exposure to abstract art wear thin? What has been interesting is no longer what was free expression has it grown old? Has the medium been pushed so far it can no longer express anything new? pg 48 What was exciting and new pushing boundaries cant anymore because we have become desensitised by the work. Fischer pg 49What was shocking during the avant-garde cant be done now to create similar reaction. Its not revolutionary and has lost its voomftHas painting run its course?Jaquette suggests the value of abstract painting its not to illustra te pg 51Why abstract arts are important. link to RichterWhat does GR say about the feeling of paint and what that does?Jacs view on Elkin/ My view on Elkin. pg 53Its is the Art Historians and the critiques that decide what happens with painting.Elkins emphasises the role of the painter.They are entranced by the qualities of the paint and by the challenge of trying to make paint do what they want it to down when applying to the surface, in both figurative and abstract painting pg 54 para 3This is why in contemporary day with all the other ways to express ideas they choose paint.Nicholas May link with the writing s of Elkin and Richters approach to abstracts.The fascination cant die in the individual thats why painting will live onNicholas May his experiment an